SOLUTION: Gender Inequality and Women Participation in Politics in Africa Project
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GENDER INEQUALITY AND WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS IN AFRICA
BY
STUDENT NAME
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A RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE
2021
DECLARATION
This initiative is unique to me and has never been submitted for a degree at any other
university.
Name: —————————————
Reg, No.: ———————————
Signature: _______________________
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Date: ___________________________
RECOMMENDATION
As University Supervisors, we have approved the submission of this proposal for review.
Supervisor
Department of Political Science
University
Signature_________________
Date _____________________
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DEDICATION
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT …………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
TABLE OF CONTENT ……………………………………………..Error! Bookmark not defined.
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
CHAPTER ONE ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13
INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
Background ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13
1.2 Problem Statement …………………………………………………………………………………. 16
1.3 Objectives ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17
1.3.1 Overall Objectives ………………………………………………………………………………. 17
1.3.2 Other Objectives …………………………………………………………………………………. 17
1.4 Justification of the Study ……………………………………………………………………………. 17
1.4.1 Academic Justification …………………………………………………………………………. 17
1.4.2 Policy justification ………………………………………………………………………………. 18
1.5 Literature Review………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
1.5.1 Political Participation and Governance …………………………………………………… 19
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1.5.2 Governanc ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
1.5.3 Good and democracy governance ………………………………………………………….. 20
1.5.4 Women and Governance ………………………………………………………………………. 22
1.5.5 Forms of Political Participation …………………………………………………………….. 23
1.5.6 Voting ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24
1.5.7 Conventional Means ……………………………………………………………………………. 26
1.5.8 Factors Determining Political Participation …………………………………………….. 26
1.5.8.1 Availability of resources ……………………………………………………………………. 26
1.5.8.2 Education ………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
1.5.8.3 Income…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 27
1.5.8.4 Ethnicity ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28
1.5.8.5 Group Consciousness ………………………………………………………………………… 29
1.5.9 Political Participation of Women …………………………………………………………… 31
1.5.10 Political Parties …………………………………………………………………………………. 32
1.5.11 Challenges of Women’s Political Participation ……………………………………… 34
1.6 Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………………………………………. 34
1.7 Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
1.8 Research Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………. 36
Population ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36
Sample…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36
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Collection of data ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 37
1.8.1 Primary Source of Data ……………………………………………………………………….. 38
1.8.2 Secondary Source of Data …………………………………………………………………….. 38
1.8.3 Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………………………………… 38
1.9 Scope and Limitations………………………………………………………………………………… 38
CHAPTER TWO ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN SHAPING AFRICAN POLITICS ………………………….. 38
Shift in institutions ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40
Quota …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42
Increase of women movement groups. ………………………………………………………………. 43
National Gender Machineries …………………………………………………………………………… 44
Changes in Representation and Presentation. Advising women candidates and serving
as positive examples ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 45
Women in Dispute Resolution ………………………………………………………………………….. 45
Better Governance ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 46
Effect on Production (Women-Friendly Legislation) …………………………………………… 48
Shift in Discourse……………………………………………………………………………………………. 49
Women’s Challenges in Changing the Political Climate ………………………………………. 50
CHAPTER THREE ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 51
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IN KENYA, THE IMPACT OF PATRIARCHY ON WOMEN’S ENTRY AND
EFFECTIVE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION………………………………………………………………. 51
What is patriarchy? ……………………………………………………………………………………… 51
Models of Masculine Politics……………………………………………………………………………. 52
Cultural Norms……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
Religion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 55
Media ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 56
Sphere of the Socio-Economic………………………………………………………………………….. 56
Results …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 58
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 59
CHAPTER 4 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60
RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION …………………………………………………… 60
Recommendations …………………………………………………………………………………………… 61
References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 63
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ABSTRACT
In Western societies, differences in political values, attitudes, and behaviors between men
and women have long been scrutinized. Gender differences in roles and experiences in the home,
at work, and in the community have been identified as major contributors to the observed
“gender gap” in these societies. In terms of ideology, electoral preferences, and political
attitudes, the “gender gap” has traditionally been defined as a tendency for women to be more
conservative than men. On the other hand, recent research casts doubt on the notion, or at least
the long-term viability, of the so-called “traditional gender gap.”
For a long time, women’s role in governance has been undermined not only in Africa but
throughout the world. Women are regarded as second-class citizens who embrace the status quo
and follow their male counterparts as their position in society. They were told that it is right in
the men’s place. They are those who make laws, enforce them, and punish those who behave
contrary to the law and make women the foot soldier and just obey, as they have said. When it
comes to politics, women have not been taken seriously, with some being forced to make their
voices heard. Some of these women have taken on the role of advocates in changing the climate
for future generations.
Women face a variety of obstacles when they participate in politics. They lack the right
expertise to make informed decisions, patriarchal regulations that often suppress women, and the
lack of adequate means of access to power. Over the years, women and more women in Kenya
have defeated such opponents to become active in politics in the region. Besides, the study used
secondary data from available literature to reinforce the findings, not just based on primary data
from these respondents. This study found that despite the constant discussions on the
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underrepresentation of women in domestic politics and the global call to promote increased
women’s participation, their numbers in national politics remain markedly low. In addition to
relying on primary data from those respondents, the study also reinforced the findings using
secondary data from the available literature. The study found that despite constant discussions
about the underrepresentation of women in national politics and the global call to support
women’s increased participation, there are still significantly low numbers in national politics.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background
Overwhelming evidence has shown that politics remains mostly male-dominated. A
closer look at the political matrix of many countries would reveal that men control political
participation. This proof is not geographically or culturally distinct but spreads across the world.
In Africa, for example, because of a great deal of tradition, women are continually regarded as
minors and second-rate men. While critics may argue that political participation is excluded and
that politics is an equal area for all those involved in membership regardless of gender and social
status, the institutional basis for participation does not imply that. This is particularly true in the
holding of elected public offices. However, although holding public office is regarded as an
intrinsic feature of political engagement, it is not the only way other types of political
involvement influence the domestic political environment (Sheridan, Pini, & Conway, 2006).
Governance deals with decision-making processes that reflect on what decisions are or
are not implemented. It is one of the oldest human activities and thus covers all aspects of social
life. It will occur where people meet to achieve a particular aim. Governance has other aspects in
addition to decision making, including transparency and authority. Governance is available to
states and other organizations, including companies, foreign NGOs, co-operatives, religious
groups, military, and political parties. It is carried out nationally utilizing institutions that appear
to be inclined towards patriarchal ideals that have traditionally excluded women from the
process.
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Although liberal thinking flourished after the fall of the Berlin wall, some groups refused to
engage politically. Arguably, this is a paradox as liberal societies value democracy and equality
that favor political participation. While it is ridiculous to ask everyone in a democratic society to
hold office in politics, both men and women must at least have an opportunity to do so
effectively. So all those who qualify to vote should take on this responsibility in large numbers.
Participation of citizens in the political leaders’ mandate is crucial as the government is
intended to represent them. Political involvement is widely known as any action performed by
people to influence, impact or involve the political sphere. The United Nations (UN) InterAgency Network on Women and Gender Equality (IANWGE) defines policy participation as
being more than just participation in the electoral process; it subsumes freedom of expression, of
assembly, of association, of participation in a public affair, the possibility of registering as a
candidate, of campaigning, of being elected and taking office at any given location This broad
description includes many items that are taken for granted. Some people associate civic activity
with the democratic process, thereby not capturing other similarly important events, such as
marches and voluntary activities, and local boards’ meetings.
Conway applies to citizens’ actions that aim to control government structure, the
selection of government, or government policies (Miller et al.,1981). This concept emphasizes
the government system and policies and the role of citizens in both. It underlines the fundamental
importance of citizens’ view of government remoteness or absence. Rosen stone regards political
activity as acts that spread social goods and ideals in one way or another. Citizens choose their
elected officials by referendum, and representatives devise policies that ultimately decide tax
levels and earn benefits from the social program. People have other means of engaging in
politics, and they may either become representatives of or directly influence bureaucrats.
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A type of political involvement is essential for bridging contact between electorates
and government officials to conduct public discussions. Such discussions may either help
holders of public offices in their stands and policy guidance or challenge officials to change
them. They are most successful in open democratic societies when citizens express their
opinions with a high degree of freedom of expression. More closed political structures
prohibit this nature’s activity and even use coercion to avoid questioning government
decisions and policies. The level of participation in politics depends inevitably on certain
factors such as demography and social organization. However, comparative political
behavior shows variations in the degree of growth, culture, and exposure to liberal values like
democracy. In terms of growth, the Western European and North American countries show
stable democratization and wider political involvement.
In Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa, developing countries are marked by exclusionary
political violence and increased conflict between the various social classes. The conspicuous
absence of some communities in the political sphere is among the main concerns of many
academics and political leaders. The general finding is that political representation is
overwhelmingly unrepresentative of ethnic minorities and women in both corporations’ elite
strata and parliamentary assemblies (O’Bryan, 2019). This finding is valid even in the most
democratic nations. Women and ethnic groups are particularly lacking in global political
involvement. All groups must be well represented so that their representatives can better
express their particular needs, which may be ignored or considered less important than the
needs of the majority groups. Although this issue is prevalent worldwide, it is deeply rooted
in Africa. In Kenya, for example, the first Somali woman to stand for a parliamentary seat in
1997 after the independence of the country in 1963.
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1.2 Problem Statement
Political engagement tends to increase the population’s representation in society or
country governance. Political participation is encouraged in the modern state because it helps
maintain social order and the status quo by allowing citizens to express their concerns and
choices to political elites, who respond appropriately. Most constitutions worldwide guarantee
women and men equal rights, including the right to engage in politics and governance. In the last
100 years, the addition of women’s rights to universal suffrage has opened doors for significant
women’s involvement in political life. Most countries now accept the importance of women in
policymaking, and many have ratified or signed international conventions protecting women’s
rights and welfare. Although the above is real, there is still a significant disparity in political
involvement between men and women in virtually every society on the planet. Masculinity and
patriarchal ideals continue to influence governance and politics, limiting women’s participation
and political effectiveness. This is particularly true in Africa, where patriarchal traditions are
deeply ingrained in the political system. The persistence of women’s marginality in politics, both
numerically and in their ability to effectively influence decision-making, is the study’s research
challenge. The thesis aims to address the following questions in this regard.
1. What role do women play in shaping Africa’s political landscape?
2. How do patriarchal values influence women’s ability to enter and effectively
participate in governance and politics?
3. What is the structure of political parties in Kenya and Nigeria, and what role do
they play in preventing or promoting women’s participation in governance and politics?
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1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 Overall Objectives
To determine the political involvement of African women.
1.3.2 Other Objectives
i. Examine and determine women’s role in shaping Africa’s political climate and
level of political participation.
ii. To assess the importance of patriarchal ideals in deciding women’s political
participation and effectiveness.
iii. To assess the existence of political party structures in Kenya and their role in
preventing or promoting women’s participation in politics.
1.4 Justification of the Study
The following justifications are used to direct the research.
1.4.1 Academic Justification
Although much research has been done on the extent of women’s involvement in the
political process, most of it has tended to concentrate on the many problems women face. The
majority of this research portrays women as passive participants in politics. Women as members
of society have a part to play in politics, despite their conspicuous absence from public office.
There seems to be a void in the current literature on women’s roles. It is well recognized that
women outnumber men as registered voters in many areas and that women often have higher
voter participation than men during elections. In certain instances, however, when a female
candidate is up against a male candidate, the male candidate wins. Such evidence does point to
structural issues that need further investigation. As a result, this research will contribute to what
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is already known about women’s political participation. Furthermore, the research will eventually
create new research areas for potential researchers who want to learn more about this
phenomenon. In the end, this study will serve as the foundation for further research in this crucial
field.
1.4.2 Policy justification
This research would be particularly useful to government policymakers, political parties,
non-governmental organizations, and think tanks working on gender and democracy issues. It
would change government policy to achieve gender equity in governance and politics. The study
would help political party leaders determine what works and what doesn’t in the policies and
rules they create and implement to increase women’s participation. The results can also be used
by NGOs and think tanks to boost their respective mandates’ efficacy.
1.5 Literature Review
The current literature on governance and political participation will be reviewed in this
section. It will focus on women’s role, specifically their involvement or absence in global
governance and political participation. Although the study’s main focus is on Africa, specifically
Kenya, it is important to note that understanding the current political situation requires
examining what is happening in other parts of the world in terms of women’s position in
governance and politics. It would also be unable to provide a systematic review of the study if
this was not considered. Although governance is not entirely new, political participation in
Africa, especially through democratic voting, is relatively new to Africans, having been
introduced through colonization in the last 5 to 6 decades. Coupled with the patriarchal structure
that prevails in most African societies, women’s participation in governance and politics is
noticeably diminished, as evidenced by their low representation in public office and key
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decision-making positions in policy and governance. This discovery, however, is not special to
Africa; it can be seen all over the world.
This study’s literature will be divided into subsections. First, there’s the literature on
governance. There’s the literature on different types of political participation, then there’s the
literature on factors that influence political participation, and finally, there’s the literature on
women and political participation.
1.5.1 Political Participation and Governance
Federalism and political engagement are closely connected, and they are at the heart of
every social-economic structure. Women’s participation in both processes is woefully inadequate
around the world. The home has become the place of work for many women, especially
housewives, which is their primary contribution. At the same time, men hold the vast majority of
governance and political leadership (Ballington, 2004).
1.5.2 Governance
Whenever a group of people is so large that it is difficult to make decisions, members of
the group build an organization to help. They delegate an important part of decision-making in
that institution. The body can be a board of directors or project managers, depending on whether
the body is a public or private corporation. In general, governance thus implies strategic
management of communities, key management decisions, and obligations. It can also be argued
that governance is generally a matter of authority, who decides which policies are followed, and,
to some degree, its effectiveness. Governance is by no means as straightforward as the definition
above suggests. Often because of the number of actors involved, it is a difficult matter. Although
policymakers may be the directors of a private company, the board communicates and clearly
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articulates the basis of their decisions to the stakeholders, including owners and shareholders. At
the local, national, international, and corporate levels, governance may be possible.
Many observers view governance differently, and the verdict remains as to what it means
and entails. In Murdoch, governance includes transitioning from state funding to partnerships
with NGOs to social-economic initiatives and projects. This view provides a broader view of
governance by emphasizing the dynamism of the mechanism. It is not only a government
operation, but it is accomplished by the private and voluntary sectors’ efforts. Governance
determines the processes and mechanisms for implementing and executing decisions. Lange sees
governance as a process of institutionalized public-private relations that aims to reach defined
mutual goals (Barry, 1999).
1.5.3 Good and democratic governance
In the last few decades, in foreign and domestic contexts, the notion of good/democratic
governance has become a priority. Good or democratic governance refers to the degree of
accountability of a country’s institutions and processes. Good governance has become a crucial
criterion in developing countries that these countries must meet to receive development funds
from the developed world. Consequently, the role of civil society in domestic governance has
become central in this context. Good/democratic governance has the following features,
according to the United Nations Development Program.
i. Accountability – One of the municipal government’s obligations is to report,
clarify, and be accountable for its Community decision’s consequences.
ii. Transparency – people who serve governance, should readily observe and
understand decision-making, see why a decision has been made and what knowledge has
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been founded upon it. What consultation and guidance were considered before the
decision, and the applicable statutory requirements that were complied with should also
be evident.
iii. The needs of the society concerned and any conflicting interests should be
fulfilled in a timely and sensitive manner.
iv. Since the rule of law decisions made should always be law-compliant, the
bodies responsible for governance cannot be above the law.
v. Efficient and effective local government decisions and execution should make
the most of the resources available, including budgets, human resources, and time to
benefit the whole community.
vi. Equitable and inclusive government should allow all community stakeholders
to engage in the process. More so for the most vulnerable, since positive governance
feelings arise when there is a mutual sense that the member’s needs have been taken into
account.
vii. Participatory—all those affected or interested in a specific decision should
always be provided with the opportunity to participate in the decision-making process.
This can be done by members who contribute their views, recommendations or are kept
aware of them by providing information. Other times their involvement can be involved
in the actual decision.
viii. Consensus the oriented decisions taken should always be based on the
consensus of the participants. It should be able to balance different interests to reach an
agreement.
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These features originate from good governance principles like legitimacy, speech,
direction, efficiency, transparency, and fairness (Bell, & O’Rourke, 2010).
1.5.4 Women and Governance
Overall, women at the local, state, national and international levels are left out of the
main decision-making processes. Men lead governance at any level, and women should be
subordinate and simply obey a set of values. Although there is indeed a degree of involvement of
women in governance, the general observation is that women in most cases are found in
governance institutions with relatively small funds and employees. The common observation is
that women play a marginal role in decision-making, affecting society (Charles & Bradley,2009).
In Australia, for example, dominant ideologies, including competitiveness in modern society and
increased focus on the private sector, have had the effect of supporting male processes and
marginalizing women and women’s interests. Regional and local governments, however, favored
women as increased participation was noted. The number of women holding elected office grew
from 5% to 30% from 1980 to 2004. Although several global agreements recognize that women
have skills and are central to building and sustaining sustainable communities, gender blindness
and lack of a will have strengthened on the part of multiple multilateral agencies, States and their
governments, and influential groups to integrate gender comprehensively (Bratton, &
Haynie,1999).
African countries have adopted the Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of the
Human and Peoples of African Women, which provides women’s rights to participate in
governance and public life to reverse patriarchy in governance. However, the adoption and
implementation of policies are two separate things, and women remain a minority in governance.
For most rural African women, their function is confined to household duties such as food
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preparation, water fetching, fuel collection, and cleaning. They are heavily involved in care for
the sick and children without mentioning the elderly and disabled. These prescribed roles limit
women’s ability to engage in government and politics since they spend much of their time at
home. Countries like Ghana have undergone decentralized governance reforms in the recent two
decades and have promoted grassroots involvement (Bratton, & Haynie, 1999). While local
government decision-making may essentially include more women, since women play an
important role in domestic life’s social economics, many people in Ghana feel that decisionmaking is a male responsibility. This condition is no different elsewhere on the continent, as the
traditional family’s patriarchal nature has always been in the eldest men’s hands.
1.5.5 Forms of Political Participation
As indicated, political engagement is more than just office and voting. Other events are
offered to people according to their needs, resources, and skills. These practices must be
categorized into legal and illegal involvement and conventional and non-conventional methods.
Legal forms are law-sanctioned, while illegal forms are banned. The mainstream types are
conventional means, whereas non-convention is regarded as external sources. Some of the most
common traditional ways are to work in electoral campaigns, join civic groups, donate money to
political causes or candidates, contact political leaders, volunteer in local communities, and serve
on local councils, e.g., school boards (Caul,1999).
While more passive, other civic engagement ways include participating in support
activities such as taking part in concerts or sports events such as running a marathon. Other
activities do exist, while dissidents are usually important types of political activity. These nonconventional means include marches, protests, and riots, forms of political participation that
show discontent with the government’s role. The list above emerges that almost all will engage in
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political activities regardless of gender or social status. I will continue to look in-depth at some
of these events. However, we will mention only two ways of political involvement—
conventional average and vote.
1.5.6 Voting
Maybe this is the familiar means of political engagement and perhaps the one used by a
large majority of the planet’s population. It illustrates democracy and people’s right to elect their
government. There are four main elements of democracy, namely: (a) a democratic system where
governments are selected and replaced by free and fair elections; (b) active participation by
people in civic and political life; (c) the preservation of human rights for all citizens; and (d) an
equal rule of law for all citizens. The western form of democracy was largely implemented by
the Structural Adjustment Program (SAPS), which began after the oil crisis of the early 1970s in
Africa and other developing countries. The adoption of democracy was, albeit to some degree,
one of the prerequisites of the World Bank, International Monitoring Fund, and western
countries for developing countries to obtain financing to rekindle African economies.
Voting is unique in that the opinions of more people are reflected than any other practice.
It is equivalent in that everyone gets one vote regardless of their social and power status. This
legitimizes the holders of political posts and guarantees that election winners are appropriate to
most of the population where free and fair elections prevail. The efficiency of voting depends on
where it is conducted and on the number of qualified and registered voters participating. For
example, in advanced western democracies, 9 out of 10 Americans believe that citizens have the
responsibility to vote. Africa’s situation is not so different; 79% of South Africans believe that
the citizen must vote. But it doesn’t say that there is still a substantial proportion of eligible
citizens who don’t live up to their civic duty during elections in these democracies.
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In developing countries, in particular, elections in Africa appear to be less free and fair.
Votes are affected by anomalies that often trigger ethnic tensions and abuse. The 2007
presidential elections in Kenya, for example, led to post-election violence, which killed over
1000 people and displaced approximately 600,000 people. New democracies such as Kenya that
have weaker institutions, marginalization of some groups, and ethnic mistrust require structural
changes that can be efficiently carried out by ballot box. Therefore, it is very surprising that the
voting mechanism would tackle these issues divides instead of uniting Kenyans. However, not
everyone in a country is qualified for voting, and such qualifications usually have to be met,
including the age of majority and citizenship. You will have to be a registered voter.
Low turnout is a major problem in the democratic process since the results’
representativeness can be challenged. The problem of low attendance in all parts of the world is
omnipresent. Naturally, complex factors lie behind this uniformity, which can only be clarified
by further investigation. Complex bureaucratic registration is another issue that prevents citizens
from voting. It usually means that you have to leave your regular activities, drive to registration
centers and have the documentation you need. This can prove too much for different social
classes, especially those working inflexible working hours and those who simply have to work
overtime because of their low wages. To solve such issues, the US has facilitated the process by
encouraging voters to register at social services offices, motor vehicle offices, and online
registration. Online voting has greatly led to the rise in the registration of voters. In the 1992
U.S. election, over 2 million new voters registered online registers, surpassing 2.5 million new
voters in the 2008 elections.
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1.5.7 Conventional Means
They include fairly regular political campaigns which use democratic government
platforms. They can fall into two different categories:
(a) Support-where participants ceremonially show loyalty to a government or nation
(b) Influence where participants are intended to change or reverse a specific position or
government policy.
Participants’ supportive actions may be aimed at a particular gain from the government.
Behaviors may be influenced by voting or a high level of initiative to achieve a party’s benefits.
1.5.8 Factors Determining Political Participation
Political engagement is inevitably dictated, like any other social activity, by influences
that lead a group to take political actions other than others. These variables appear to display
global correlations, although certain variations are found occasionally. I’m going to talk about
some of the more famous ones.
1.5.8.1 Availability of resources
One of the main factors determining political involvement is differential access to
opportunities through demographics. In this context, the word resources refer to education and
income and the occupational situation, including membership of the association. Higher levels of
income, education, and employment are typically correlated with active political involvement
and vice versa.
1.5.8.2 Education
The importance of education in determining political engagement has been discovered.
Numerous studies have consistently shown that higher education levels are associated with more
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active political engagement, greater political literacy, higher voter turnout, and democratic
attitudes. Ignorance plays a large role in perpetuating corrupt politicians in Africa’s developing
countries, who prey on voters’ ignorance of the consequences of voting for their opponents or
women. Due to ingrained practices that relegate women to domestic work, women, in particular,
find it difficult to engage in the content; these notions are more prevalent among the lowereducated members of society. Acceptance of women as political actors is widespread among the
urban population, which has a higher education level than their rural counterparts. In Africa, low
levels of education deter certain groups from running for higher positions in government. For
example, to become a head of state, one must have completed tertiary education, which is
uncommon among some ethnic groups who still adhere to traditional traditions and refuse to
educate their children. Such citizens may also regard the government as something distant over
which they have little control, and as a result, they do not vote.
1.5.8.3 Income
Political participation is essential for bridging the gap between electorates and
government officials to hold public debates. Such debates may either support elected officials in
their positions and policy recommendations or force them to adjust. They are most successful in
open democratic societies where people have a high degree of freedom of speech expressing
their opinions. Closed political systems ban such behavior and even use coercion to discourage
people from challenging government decisions and policies. Certain variables, such as
demography and social organization, ultimately influence political participation.
On the other hand, comparative political activity reveals differences in the degree of
development, culture, and exposure to liberal values such as democracy. In terms of economic
development, Western Europe and North America have shown consistent democratization and
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increased political participation. Developing countries in Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa are
characterized by exclusionary political violence and increased tension between social groups
(Frey,1971). Many scholars and political leaders are concerned about the noticeable exclusion of
some groups from the political sphere. The general conclusion is that ethnic minorities and
women are disproportionately underrepresented in the elite strata of both businesses and
parliamentary assemblies. Also, in most democratic countries, this conclusion holds. Women and
ethnic groups are especially underrepresented in global politics. All communities must be well
represented so that their representatives can more accurately communicate their specific needs,
which may be neglected or discounted in contrast to the majority’s needs (Buchanan, 1971).
Even though this problem affects people all over the world, it is particularly prevalent in Africa.
In Kenya, for example, after the country’s independence in 1963, the first Somali woman ran for
a parliamentary seat in 1997.
1.5.8.4 Ethnicity
Ethnicity is defined by the mutual awareness of the origin and customs of one race.
Ethnicity comes from a tribe, a country, a social, ethnic, and linguistic identity, rather than a
biological one. Ethnic minorities in communities with low integration are forced to have
economic and political margins. Research shows that, because of the lack of opportunities to
organize and engage in such events, ethnic minorities are less likely to participate in the average
demonstrations. As seen among Mexican white-linked Americans, minority group membership
and the presence of social connections with a dominant ethnic group protests. Since members of
the same ethnic group are more likely to have similar experiences, some have an even more
similar socio-economic status (Poplack, Smelser, & Baltes, 2001).
29
Other variables, such as class, education, and religious disparities, have been verbally
accused of minority groups’ low political participation. Ethnic minorities remain underrepresented in parliament because a majority does not support their members. In the UK, for
example, ethnic minorities faced a 4 percent white election penalty, and Muslim candidates were
less likely to vote in whites with anti-immigration views. In Central Europe, Latin America, and
Sub-Saharan Africa, several new democracies describe the ethnic conflict, low economic
performance, and a strongly ethnic-dominated political group. People from ethnic groups that
control Africa’s government or opposition are more likely than people from less numerically
dominant ethnic groups to take part in politics. Ethnicity has speeded up sectarian politics,
controlling Africa so far. Of course, the race is the powerful political instrument of the African
continent. A dominant ethnic group with long-maintained influence is likely to mobilize its
members to vote in large numbers so that society’s power is not eradicated. Political activism is
more likely to be overlooked by ethnic minorities because they believe that their limited numbers
cannot make a political impact (Cassese, Zimmerman, & Santoro, 2012).
1.5.8.5 Group Consciousness
It varies from the identity of the party because it focuses primarily on affiliation with
political parties. Group consciousness involves group identification and political awareness or
knowledge of the group’s philosophy used to understand the group’s position in society and a
subsequent commitment to collective action aimed at promoting their interests. Although group
identity is psychological and includes an individual’s perceived belonging and self-allocation to a
specific social stratum, group awareness involves group identification and political awareness or
awareness of the group’s philosophy used to understand the group’s place in society and
consequent dedication to the group While members of a social group share group consciousness,
30
depending on prevailing social circumstances, it can vary from person to person, from time to
time, and even across strata. Individuals are expressing community consciousness support
engagement in collective action, including marches and lobbying, to change the social order.
According to Miller (1995), collective consciousness has four distinct components:
(A) group identity refers to belonging to a particular social group. This psychological
basis of identity is an appreciation of the group’s social position compared to other groups in
different social strata.
(B) Polar effect, characterized by bias for members of one group (in-group) and
antipathy for members of other groups, or (out-group).
(C) Polar regulation expressed satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the current community
resource position and power relative to the out-group.
(D) Individual versus system fault Participants conclude that either individual or social
system discrepancies are to blame for the group’s low social status.
According to research, in presidential elections, people from lower socioeconomic classes
who felt a psychological sense of social strata belonging and blamed their poverty for systemic
causes were more likely to vote than those from similar strata who only identified as group
members or blamed systemic causes for their poverty but did not identify with the group. Other
research involving social capital in their analysis, however, came to different conclusions.
During the 2008 and 2012 US presidential elections, African-American women outvoted all
other national, gender, and racial groups.
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1.5.9 Political Participation of Women
According to feminist theory, women politicians rank and convey different beliefs,
strategies, and values relating to parenting, schooling, and healthcare because of their unique life
experiences in society. Women politicians often follow a less aggressive and cooperative
political style. In both the developed and developing worlds, women’s political participation has
been significantly lower than men’s. This takes into account the fact that women hold political
positions and vote. In democratic democracies, political involvement takes several forms:
citizens elect members whose job is to prioritize the electorate’s welfare while formulating
policies. Since independence, the number of female heads of state in Africa has been
insignificant (Muller & Plantenga,1990).
Liberia had had a female president since 2005 when Ellen Johnson became Africa’s first
female president. In Malawi, Joyce Banda took over the presidency for a short period, and
Catherine Samba became the Central African Republic’s temporary president in 2014. Just nine
female prime ministers have served in Africa since 1993. Some researchers believe that having
female representatives does not promote women’s rights since becoming a woman does not
always mean being mindful of the patriarchal structure. It’s commonly assumed that certain
female leaders support the status quo more than men. To be sure, being a member of a
recognized political party is required for political involvement to be elected to public office.
Political parties are undeniably the stage on which political careers are honed and cultivated. As
a result, they become an extremely valuable tool for realizing people’s desires for public power.
To summarize, to be competitive in politics, one must enter a political party and persuade
the other members that they represent the party’s best chance of winning seats in parliament or
local elections. On the other hand, political parties are obsolete in certain ways of political
32
activity, such as running a marathon or volunteering. As a result, the research will look at parties
in presidential, legislative, and municipal/local/constituency elections (Songsore,2012).
1.5.10 Political Parties
This is a crucial aspect of civic engagement. In most nations, individuals are chosen to
run for political office and decide who holds political office. As a result, political parties play an
important role in women’s political participation. Political parties are crucial in eliciting member
support and participation in elections; the most involved political parties effectively get their
supporters to the polls. Active parties can better organize large rally attendance, knock on doors,
and win over undecided voters and persuade them to vote because of their perceived numbers
and commitment. The majority of the time, interviewing and choosing applicants takes place
away from the public eye. Some parties allow party representatives to nominate candidates for
flag bearers, while others allow only a few high-ranking party bureaucrats. This leads to the
global phenomenon of duo candidate selection, with egalitarian candidate selection on one hand
and oligarchic candidate selection. The democratic model promotes greater engagement because
people are more likely to become involved when they believe in their personal choice.
Inevitably, the selection process for political parties determines who features on the ballot and
who does not (Bawa & Sanyare,2013).
If one can win office, then there can be no doubt that one has made it into the political
party scene. To be honest, getting a public service job is more down to hard work than mere
chance. At this point, the candidate’s selection becomes extremely important in the local and
national elections. Political parties impact the outcome of nomination and, thus, directly affect
women; this is both an advantage for women who want to climb the political ladder and a barrier
33
to entry to their participation. If they so choose, individual parties can use political party rules
and policies to increase and participation of women.
Gatekeepers strongly influence candidate participation, and this has the potential to
change the diversity of the pool. Gatekeepers in political parties are powerful top-tier executives
who direct and influence the party’s activities and policies. It is generally accepted that women
are less likely to be promoted in parties where they have the same qualifications as men. A
pattern that is commonly seen in political organizations, especially party organizations, is
described as patriarchal. Thus, since party leadership is always decided on gender, the out-group
has little chance of being put forward as potential candidates. He points out that low levels of
women’s participation in politics are related to a lack of female candidates’ support
(Chant,2006).
However, it must be noted that gatekeeping roles are not always maleficent or bent for
punishing women on excluding them. Women are encouraged to enter politics when men make
clear that they see a place for them in the gatekeeping function. The percentage of women
running for preliminary nominations is significantly higher in the US than elsewhere.
Furthermore, local officials could assist women in campaigning, help with campaign donations,
and participate in participant mobilization, all of which play a major role in women’s support
efforts. Lower-level support for political candidates is significantly increased if party chairs talk
highly of the candidate’s merits.
This becomes an issue as women’s political participation in elections is poor. Due to
increasing visibility, Tanzanian communities and women’s groups are watching their leaders
more closely. Women worldwide are currently learning that the only thing that can alter politics
34
and transparency is to participate in them. Women must do more in government and politics to
keep leaders accountable.
1.5.11 Challenges of Women’s Political Participation
women face major barriers that get in the way of their participation in public life. This is
strange as women, on the whole, make up a majority of the electorate, but it stands out in marked
contradiction to the fact that globally women are substantially underrepresented in government. I
will deal with issues that women commonly face to inhibit their participation in politics, and, if
possible, I will try to make participation more difficult for them. Having more women engage in
gatekeeping impairs women’s political participation. Alternatively, this could be easily avoided
by adopting political policies that are unfriendly to women because of those who currently hold
these positions (Cole, 2016).
The field of politics has always been unwelcoming and hostile to women. Elizabeth Dole
pulled out of the nomination in the year 2000 due to a lack of funds. For comparison, it is hard
for women to contend with physical limitations like insufficient funds or lower education levels.
A few scholars have emphasized the cultural aspect of low female participation. There is much
emphasis on cultural underpinnings of expectations and a degree of patriarchy, which assign
women to domestic roles. Where there is a fixed percentage of women and men running for
political office, parties should ensure that all candidates’ list has at least equal numbers of both
genders, according to the article. Determining who is put forward as a candidate for election is
vital for ensuring female candidates are supported (Chan & Lee, 2007).
1.6 Theoretical Framework
The findings of this study will be based on the radical feminist theory. We follow the
principles of radical feminism when we examine social relationships through sex, sexuality, and
35
gender. A major goal of feminism is to alter inherently patriarchal structures and liberate women
from their subservient position. The woman is assigned to subordinate roles in comparison to her
masculine gender. This is rarely the case because they cannot participate in government and
politics.
This theory especially explains women’s politics in terms of the topics of power,
domination, and patriarchy. In general, we may assume that there is equal representation of
women in government, but the issues of female empowerment have not been handled well by
certain governments. Radical feminism sees the obvious gender differences, which are usually go
unrecognized. Underneath a patriarchal gender structure, it is correct to state that most women
are unaware of their position of oppression. The theory connects women’s sex with their
socialization into oppressive social roles and holds gender as the norm by which we understand
their surroundings. Radical feminism views women are identified by their gender, not their
economic status. The heart of women’s oppression and emotional torment is the broader practice
of housework, having children, and marriage. What are some of the reasons which prevent
women from participating in government? Feminism emphasizes the unique characteristics of
this analysis (Compaoré,2005).
1.7 Hypothesis
•
The Patriarchal value structures have a detrimental impact on women’s effectiveness
and successful involvement in governance and politics in Kenya.
•
The essence of the organization of political parties in Kenya hinders women’s
involvement in governance and politics.
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1.8 Research Methodology
This analysis is a descriptive study. A descriptive study that provides a reliable and
accurate representation of research-related dynamics. It aims to accurately explain social
events and provide a detailed image of phenomena. This type of research aims to answer
“how” and “who” and uses a large number of data collection techniques. This approach uses
qualitative and quantitative data to offer a real image of the problem of research.
Although the qualitative approach focuses on social contexts, figures are the main
subject of quantitative methodology. Interview guides are used to perform interviews with
the correct participants and to collect quantitative data. Interviews enable a researcher to
obtain detailed information based on its centric significance, and questionnaires are useful for
collecting numbers. A case study will be used for research design. Case studies look at
current phenomena in their current environment and are most capable of studying contextual
conditions.
Population
This study is aimed at the general public, respected academics, policy-makers, and
governmental, political, non-governmental, and think tank staff representatives. Therefore,
the population is drawn from people who are interested in the study issue in one way or the
other. The population will come from Kenya’s capital, Nairobi, which well represents all
social strata and ethnic groups. Nairobi has around 3.36 million inhabitants in 696 km.
Sample
In this study, stratified random sampling will be used. We’ll have four classes that
take a simple random sample. The related data will be obtained using questionnaires and
37
interview guides. Stratified sampling ensures that the four distinctly different groups are well
represented.
Collection of data
Mixed process analysis is used in this research. It uses qualitative as well as
quantitative methods. Working with qualitative and quantitative approaches is essential
because we would have statistics of the respondents’ different opinions and concrete evidence
to define their claims. The use of both methods is also essential to enhance the study’s
authenticity so that research is not influenced by the researchers’ opinions but by the facts
presented to us.
Qualitative methods: interview guides are used to obtain primary data through
interviews with established interviewees. Because of its centric existence, this technique helps a
researcher to obtain detailed information.
Questionnaires will be created to collect quantitative data, conducted in two ways.
Quantitative research: A formal interview will be conducted with key informants found by
contacting local stakeholders concerned with women’s empowerment and facing the challenges
of achieving these objectives. These are referred to as primary informant interviews. The
collected data will be collected, and concrete conclusions are taken. This will lead to the portion
of the results in the following chapters.
The primary data of the instruments will be collected through interview guides and
questionnaires for preparation and use. Interview guides enable the researcher to obtain more
accurate information that captures the views and beliefs of respondents.
38
1.8.1 Primary Source of Data
Interviews and questionnaires would be used to gather primary information.
1.8.2 Secondary Source of Data
Scholarly books, scholarly journals, unpublished works, papers, UN publications, and
non-governmental organization reports.
1.8.3 Data Analysis
The research would make use of qualitative data processing techniques. Data collected
through interviews will be analyzed using content analysis.
1.9 Scope and Limitations
This study will focus on African women’s political experiences, including their
contributions, challenges, opportunities, and responses to those opportunities. In particular, the
study will focus on women’s political roles in Africa, especially in Kenya. Due to time and
financial constraints, the study will rely heavily on established literature.
CHAPTER TWO
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN SHAPING AFRICAN POLITICS
We cannot overlook the importance of women in the political environment without
considering some of the difficulties and breakthroughs women have brought to the present. In
reviewing this and some of the recommendations made in recent studies on women’s
39
involvement in governance in Africa, we will identify women’s role in shaping Africa’s political
climate. Let’s look at the role that women play in shaping the political climate in Africa. We
must study it with knowledge of the three phases of precolonial, colonial, and postcolonial
Africa. In the pre-colonial period, women played an important role in decision-making even
though various ethnic groups from different factions were either hunter-gatherers or rural groups.
In the colonial and post-colonial eras, the role of women in politics was a dark time. The
colonialists then moved their culture and standards to Africa. With the advent of capitalism,
women’s position in active political and economic activities declined. The structure was
oppressive for women and African men and ensured that women stayed in power.
Women are considered to be back in the field of active political engagement. This
engagement is about voting and representation in the legislature and the willingness of women to
keep their representatives accountable. Many studies show that in Kenya, more women than men
are registered as voters, but very few are elected, and even worse, a smaller number is elected.
Between 1964 and 1969, there were no women’s leaders in Kenya. This was due to the lack of
women’s experience and knowledge in leading roles. This was also quite ironic because the
nation had just achieved independence, and the men and women leaders did not at the time have
the ‘experience.’
Women have for a long time had the agenda set for them. Despite having the power in
terms of voting numbers, often it is the patriarchal plan that carries the day. Women have been
made to believe that leadership positions are meant for men, and their authority should not be
questioned. In so doing, the needs of the women are often overlooked.78 According to Mama
2000, women’s participation in Western countries was marked by activism. The women fought
for their ability to participate in politics actively. In contrast, in African countries, the notion of
40
women’s participation came about during nation-building and was only a sub-component of the
nation-building process. This means that the plan was already set for them, and it was not up to
the women to decide what it is they wanted to achieve.
However, Mikell had a different opinion; women played an important role in Africa
during the nationalist era. However, this prominence in politics decreased in the 1970s.
However, it is important to note that the involvement of women in governance and the economic
sphere increased during the structural reforms of the 1980s. After the oil crisis in the 1970s,
African economies nearly collapsed. As a result, Western countries and the international lending
authorities implemented structural adaptation programs, widely known as SAPs, to save Africa.
The position of women exceeds numbers if they want the shift they want.
Shift in institutions
If women are to change the rules to accommodate them, they must first learn the rules.
The scope of women’s significant representation depends on the commitment of women to
equality between men and women and the degree that the institutional setting of parliament
permits women to participate as equal partners in the legislative process and place women’s
concerns on the parliamentary agenda. The number of women in parliament depends on the
electoral system. In contrast, formal commitment to fair representation should be reflected in the
fact that more women are elected to parliament. That is not always the case. Kenya is especially
curious in this regard. A new role of women’s delegate has been implemented to increase
women’s participation and representation. The representative of women in each of the 47
counties is responsible for ensuring that women are well represented in their county and meet
their needs. This raises the number of parliamentary seats currently. The State also adopted the
one-third gender provision in the 2010 Constitution to enhance women’s participation. With the
41
multi-party structure, more political parties have arisen and have taken on various strategies to
remain successful. It has previously been noted that where women are members of political
parties, they often have positions that make them “toothless.” That is why they choose to have
their parties empower them to bring about the desired change.
The women in South Africa’s first parliament decided that voting on important issues late
in the night was unfair because women wanted to attend to their families. As mentioned above,
women have different roles in society. They are first connected to chores, and the rest is
secondary. This is why these women in the South African Parliament agreed that crucial matters
would no longer be voted on at night. They persisted and developed a ‘Female Empowerment
Unit’ and childcare facilities. This was designed to better address the diverse roles women
continue to play in society. This was an opportunity for women in parliament who are already
serving and those who wish to enter politics. This shift in working hours can be seen as a
systemic change because women said no to it and changed the time in a fairway. Those that
would enable them to play accordingly.
Women have had to quit smoking in committee meetings in this first South African
Parliament. This was done by tossing out all the ashtrays, in which everyone decided that
smoking would no longer be permissible in committees. This is not to be underestimated as a
minor mission. By stopping smoking in committees, Participants may actively engage in any
mission without shy away from the discomfort non-smoking people can feel. As was mentioned
earlier, to modify the rules, it is also necessary to understand that they can then be modified to
meet your particular needs. In a variety of ways, women can improve their understanding.
To begin with, women can learn this through political party orientation. These parties are
how women are elected. It is thus their first way of engaging with lawmaking. Despite differing
42
philosophies, their understanding of how the system works is more or less the same. Therefore,
women should be interested in orientation to better understand the mechanism. Women can also
network in parliament with other women.
The networking then extends one’s views on topics, and thus, if you are satisfied with the
status quo initially, you become aware of what that means. Women can also be involved in joint
training sessions. It is important to note that although networking is important for women, they
should not separate themselves from men. In the end, it is the votes of both men and women that
will count when passing legislation. Therefore, in these training sessions, women will illustrate
what appeals to their needs and clarify to their male peers what their concerns are. This offers
women a platform to network with men and potentially break the conduct codes that do not favor
them. If this is known, women can go ahead and appoint women in parliament or committees.
Women are elected to the committee instead of the chambers of debate.
Quota
A quota system is a form of affirmative action and refers to a system where special seats
are reserved for women. This system, according to Nzomo, is predetermined and inflexible.
Women in Africa should push for a quota system that will guarantee more women are elected to
power and thus paving the way for other women in the years to come. This system has been
successful in western countries such as Germany at both local and national levels. In Belgium
and France, this has been implemented in political parties. In Uganda, the quota policy’s adoption
has seen the increase of women in legislation triple from 34 in 1989 to 112 in 2011.87 It is not
enough to have these policies in place. Still, there should be a mechanism to ensure that there is
monitoring taking place to implement the policies to the letter. In Burkina Faso, however, the
same has not happened. Politicians have recognized the need to have women leaders join their
43
camp. They have often promised them informal quotas once they join their camp. This, however,
has not been implemented. Women should therefore champion the need to have formal quota
systems which can be monitored as opposed to relying on empty promises. There are, however,
those who oppose the quota system. They claim that the system is undemocratic, and it only
reinforces the position that women are weak and, in fact, in need of saving. As a result, those
who come into power thanks to the quota system are seen as inept and unable to effect real
change.
Increase of women movement groups.
These parties played a major role in Africa’s politics. These groups’ vibrancy has pushed
their country for constitutional reforms. Some of these groups include the National Women’s
Status Committee (Kenya), Women of Zimbabwe Arise (WOZA), and Development Action
(Uganda). This resulted in fundamental rights, including equality and non-discrimination (Ibid).
In Zimbabwe, for example, WOZA was involved in drafting the constitution in 2012, which
resulted in the constitution having clauses such as prohibiting discrimination against women
under customary law, having a limit of two presidential terms, amending the constitution to be
by referendum only. 89 Before implementing multiparty democracy in Kenya in 1992, the
women’s movement was only three and governed. Maendeleo ya Wanawake (MYWO), Kenya
National Women’s Council (NCWK), Nairobi Business and Technical Women’s Organization.
They serve as a forum to champion women’s rights in Kenya. Women in parliament are
regularly asked to liaise with them. There was a disconnect between women, gender machinery,
and actual change. Diplomacy should always be practiced while performing legislative duties,
writes Nairobi-based activist. Women’s organizations have the means to enforce strategies since
they work directly with on-the-ground women.
44
National Gender Machineries
Women are better served, and their problems are better-expressed thanks to National
Gender Machineries (NGM). This machinery wasn’t very good across Africa. A closer look at
the National Council on Women and Development (NCWD) in Ghana showed little achievement
in gender equality and women’s advancement front. Women should be proactive, setting their
plan instead of waiting to be set. Political institutions have troubled not only African countries
but also Western countries. According to Gouws and Hassim, women frequently leave leadership
positions because of the stresses that come with them. (Gouws and Hassim, 2011).
The concept of critical mass asserts that there is strength in numbers. Using the critical
mass principle, which entails bringing about 30% of women into legislation, the state’s political
culture will be transformed. More women will be motivated to enter politics until it is clear that
society does not favor one sex over the other. By enacting the two-thirds gender law, the Kenyan
government has attempted to establish an atmosphere to apply the critical mass principle. The
aim was to increase women’s participation in politics and decision-making. The government has
attempted to accomplish this by creating a post of women representatives in each county.
Although there is no rule stating that only women are eligible for this role, it is expected that
women are the ones who are most familiar with the problems that women face, allowing them to
serve their fellow women. This will result in 47 more women being elected to parliament. This
number does not include those who wish to be elected to other positions such as Parliament,
Governor, Senator, or County Assembly Member.
45
Changes in Representation and Presentation. Advising women candidates and
serving as positive examples
Presentational reform refers to women leaders inspiring others to participate more in
politics. Studies have shown that where more women are elected in parliament, teenage girls are
more likely to engage in political debates and participate actively in politics. Areas that
documented more women in leadership also recorded shifts in women’s leadership psychology.
However, this argument cannot stand alone without women’s increased representation. While
increased representation means only more women in the legislature, going beyond numbers is
critical. This increased number doesn’t mean much unless used properly. According to research,
women can argue more openly in other women’s presence than on a platform that only has men.
Ngilu and Wangari Maathai were the first women to run for the presidency in 1997. This
smashed women’s artificial ceilings as it now transmitted the message that they too could
compete for the presidency. The next woman to wrestle as planned was Martha Karua. Martha
Karua was instrumental in Kenya’s political climate. Though unsuccessful in her attempt, she
stood tall among the men still wrestling and gave them a serious run for their money. This act
only motivated more women to stand in the same field as men for their highest position.
Women in Dispute Resolution
Women’s position in conflict resolution has not been understood as it should. During
Arusha’s first round of peace talks in 1998, only two women were out of 126 delegates. In this
map, women would like to have their say, so there is an all-inclusive roadmap. Nzomo highlights
the involvement of the Sudanese Women’s Association in resolving Sudanese conflicts. Women’s
increased involvement in peace talks is essential, as peace negotiations are not what they once
46
were. Nzomo emphasizes the importance of the Sudanese Women’s Association (Acheampong &
Dinye,2015).
The organization, which is based in Kenya, has been working to bring the Sudanese
people together since 1994 in various ways, including pieces of training and workshops to
discuss food security and peacekeeping in Sudan. During the post-election violence in Kenya in
2007-2008, both the ruling party and the opposition were asked to name their negotiation teams,
with Annan acting as the mediator. In both camps, a female representative was named to the
negotiation team. This is a significant step forward because legislators recognized the value of
getting women on teams rather than relegating them to the back seat and forcing them to accept
the result as it was determined. Martha Karua led the team in charge of negotiating with the
opposition. Sally Kosgei was assigned to the opposition’s negotiation team. As a result, a
coalition government was formed. This was a watershed moment in the history of women’s
political participation. It is evident from some of the examples given that women’s participation
did not come without difficulty. Before women can sit at the negotiating table, they must engage
in advocacy and lobbying. It is also clear that peacekeeping reaches beyond the negotiation table
to the day-to-day tasks that women strive to resolve in conflict management and resolution.
However, it is disappointing to see that, despite its importance, this contribution receives little
attention.
Better Governance
According to studies, states with a critical mass of women have lower levels of
corruption. This would explain why corruption in Rwanda, which is known for having the most
female lawmakers, is substantially lower than in Kenya. It’s no surprise, then, that some African
countries lauded for their female representation, such as South Africa, the Seychelles, and
47
Senegal, are also among the top ten in the Ibrahim Index of African Governance. Rwanda, with
the largest number of female delegates globally, is ranked eleventh in the ranking. This serves as
a deterrent to engaging in corrupt practices. Women are required to uphold higher expectations
in the majority of communities around the world. This is rooted in the patriarchal culture that
prevails in the majority of African countries. In Kenya, the then-deputy chief justice Nancy
Baraza was forced to resign after being accused of assaulting a security guard in response to the
guard’s request to search her. On the other hand, Moses Kuria is a well-known MP for inciting
people to violence against various ethnic groups (Leonard, Owuor, & George, 2009).
Although these incidents are not linked to corruption, it is apparent that women are
judged far more harshly than their male counterparts. Ms. Baraza’s actions affected only one
person. In contrast, Mr. Moses Kuria and Mr. Waititu’s actions had the potential to instigate
ethnic cleansing of an entire group, but it was Baraza who lost her job. One of the difficulties
that women face when ascending to positions of authority is the existing way of doing things,
which may or may not be the best. When they try to change the status quo, the system forces
them out, leaving them disappointed. In Kenya, Martha Karua, dubbed “the Iron Lady” for her
firm stance on important issues, resigned as Minister of Justice, National Cohesion, and
Constitutional Affairs in the tenth parliament, citing discontent with her duties. She didn’t want
to be a part of the system’s widespread corruption. However, good governance does not imply a
lack of corruption. The electorate should be able to decide who they vote for and then keep
politicians accountable so that when they are not representing the people, the electorate has the
power to speak up. Women leaders should launch initiatives that inspire other women to speak
up. Voting is just part of their civic responsibilities. The other is to hold them responsible
(Tsubura, 2013).
48
Effect on Production (Women-Friendly Legislation)
Women learned first-hand what marginalization means. They have tried to make their
voices heard through advocacy and other ways to empower and give equal opportunities to men.
Therefore, women who are elected should make an effort to produce women-friendly legislation.
Studies have shown that, where women’s engagement has increased, there is increased policy
promoting women’s interests. In Uganda, for example, the eight parliaments passed several laws
that were women-friendly. As stated earlier, this parliament had the most women compared to
other parliaments. They formed a cross-party women’s caucus that engaged both men and
women in and outside the parliament. Any of these were: the Equal Opportunity Commission
Act (2006), the Female Genital Mutilation Act (2009), the Legislation on Trafficking in Persons
Prevention (2009), and the Domestic Abuse Act (2010). In Kenya, women played a key role in
marriage in the new constitution. Whereas 2007’s marriage bill made polygamy legal, 2010’s new
constitution made this null and void (Akoleowo, 2021).
In the new constitution, a man had to get the first wife’s consent if he decided to marry a
second wife. The wife may veto the husband’s decision to marry another wife. This provision
was included as women were aware that when men married a second wife, it was always the first
wife who suffered the most. Often she would be ignored along with her children, concentrating
solely on the second wife. Therefore, this provision gave power to Kenyan women to prevent
suffering the same fate as their predecessors. Despite women’s efforts to do so, there was an
amendment to this in 2014 when male parliamentarians abolished the provision and proposed
that men should marry as many wives as they saw fit, given they had the means to support them.
The permission of the first wife was not required. This discussion took a turn when women who
thought their voices were not heard and angry at the men’s statement walked off parliament. The
49
men cast their votes, and the new law was enacted on May 20, 2014, to the dismay of not only
women legislatures but women around the country (Conway, 2001).
When Ellen took office in Liberia, women could now talk publicly. Before, their position
was limited to the family unit, but after Ellen came to office, not only economically empowered
women. Women did not participate in business and were illiterate. However, with Ellen coming
to power, more girls have enrolled in schools and women doing business far and wide. Policies
introduced during Ellen’s rule made these possible. Some include: establishing rural women’s
systems in 15 counties; developing and adopting a National Gender Policy (NGP) in 2009;
developing and implementing a National Gender-based Violence Action Plan; enacting a
Children’s Law; designing and implementing a Gender Equality and Women’s Economic
Empowerment Programme. Men and women worldwide were sensitized on gender problems,
and the government continued to ensure equal opportunities for both sexes. Soon after Joyce
Banda became the fifth president in Malawi, she sold the presidential jet and limousine fleet and
launched the ‘Presidential Initiative for Maternal Health and Safe Motherhood.’ In the postapartheid period, women were active in the constitution drafting process in South Africa. Their
participation in this process contributed to the country’s gender equality agenda (Kasomo,2012).
Shift in Discourse
In every nation, legislative language has been sexual. This language is a reflection of both
culture and male supremacy in the legislature. Researchers claim that this terminology represents
societal ills such as gender bias and women’s social exclusion from certain positions. Chairman
sends a derogatory message, implying that only men should hold those positions and that only
men have the potential to hold those positions. As a result, women will use the media to bring
attention to some of these topics, changing the vocabulary and normalizing women’s
50
perspectives. Even though the media has previously promoted patriarchal rhetoric, it is the very
medium used to shift people’s perceptions. Women should also lobby for this type of language to
be taught in schools and integrated into the curriculum. It is said that teaching an old dog new
tricks is difficult, so it could be more successful if children are taught from an early age that
chairman does not equal chairperson. In the past, there have been programs designed to
encourage the use of nonsexist words. The only issue is that no one has kept track of whether the
initiatives have been successful. Women should take this on as a challenge and build programs
that encourage nonsexist language and find ways to track these programs’ progress. Any of the
factors that can be monitored are the short-term effects; are people now using less sexist
language in the media and organizations? What are the long-term consequences; are more
women applying for jobs that men previously dominated?
Women’s Challenges in Changing the Political Climate
Culture’s patriarchal existence in Africa is also something to confront. Despite women
making up over 50% of voters in many African countries, very few women are elected in office.
This is because if women and men’s mindset does not improve, then the rise in voter registration
would not mean much. Religion is closely linked to this. Christianity and Islam are Africa’s main
religions. Both religions allow women to be subordinate. Countries predominantly Islam have
lower female participation than countries predominantly Christian. Referring to women’s
representation, as stated earlier, some reject the quota system arguing that it depicts women as
poor. Therefore, those who are elected using the system will be seen as incompetent and unable
to make the changes they so desire primarily because of the mindset people have towards them.
In the same breath, women’s machinery, which is political parties, is constructed against them
(Sow, 2012).
51
For example, in Burkina Faso, women are not often nominated by these parties, and if
they are, they are put down and often placed in positions with little chance of winning. Women
are known to share in household work disproportionately. This means that, instead of spending
time on jobs, much of their time is spent on domestic tasks. In addition to the fact that many
women in Africa do not have the necessary education for a job, few women are given the time
and the money to participate in politics. Lack of women’s leadership capability and
accountability for leaders. While there were efforts to register voters and the importance of
carrying out civic duties, little attention was paid to political commitment to make the leaders
accountable. Some of their roles, therefore, stop after elections (Acheampong & Dinye, 2015).
CHAPTER THREE
IN KENYA, THE IMPACT OF PATRIARCHY ON WOMEN’S ENTRY AND
EFFECTIVE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
What is patriarchy?
This chapter will define patriarchy and the role patriarchal ideals play in deciding
women’s access to and successful involvement in politics. According to Pogoson (2012),
patriarchy is a social structure in which a man’s status as the primary authority figure is central to
social groups and associations. In the majority of African countries, this patriarchal structure is in
place. According to this scheme, the man is regarded as the household’s head. His roles include
caring for the family and having the final say in all matters relating to the unit. Women, on the
other hand, are restricted to domestic work in the home. According to Walby (2007), patriarchy
52
is a system of social structures and behaviors in which men rule and manipulate women. Male
supremacy of both the public and private worlds is often referred to as patriarchy. When one sex
is dominant, the other sex is forced to take a back seat. The fact that women are subordinate to
men implies that they are inferior to men. Since these norms decide the social division of labor,
female children are left to do most household chores while their male counterparts engage in
public life. This is instilled in their minds as they grow, that men should do one type of work and
women another. This is bolstered by hypotheses that justify women’s subordination due to their
biological and psychological characteristics. According to Oluwole (2014), women’s biological
characteristics are thought to account for their passive and submissive behavior. Some norms
have existed since the dawn of time, while others were imposed during the colonial period.
Women’s political involvement in Europe at the time, according to Pearce, was very poor.
Although patriarchy has dominated the majority of cultures, a few matriarchal communities
exist. Ghana’s Ashante culture is an example of this. It has retained its matrilineal origins, and
children are still part of their mothers’ families.
Models of Masculine Politics
Political parties are the main ways women can access legislation and local government.
However, these parties are organized for men, not women. The parties may be dependent on
issues, client lists, or patronage. They are also client or patronage-based. This implies favoritism
built on ‘old boys’ networks. This puts women at a disadvantage since they’re beginners, and they
don’t have the kind of influence the men do. Women’s participation in Kenya’s politics,
particularly in holding office, was dismal. With few of them being nominated and even less
elected, the kind of networks they have is not as elaborate as old boys have. The few women in
the legislature are facing difficulties and, because of their size, they are unable to talk with a
53
voice that can cause potential improvements for female legislators. The method is sluggish. With
every election, the number of women politicians has increased, and they have become louder,
and bodies have come to help women in legislation. According to Okoiti (2008), when elected,
women have no mentoring required. This means they lack the skills to adapt to their new
positions.
The nomination process has been skewed so that only men are elected, and women are at
the bottom. Political parties’ priorities are analyzed from a male viewpoint, and women’s interests
are not reflected in these policies. Nominations are a costly affair with various position fees.
Women can’t afford this despite several parties reducing women’s nomination fees. The policies
that arise do not favor women and are misconstrued as to what women may be involved in by
men whose plan is not to mitigate women’s role in politics but to further their interpretative
interests.
Cultural Norms
Different scholars interpreted culture differently, with others suggesting that defining it is
very difficult. Culture refers to the lifestyle of a nation. Culture is the collection of attitudes,
values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of individuals but different for each person,
transmitted from generation to generation. This culture moves from generation to generation by
socialization. In many cultures worldwide, when women get married, they travel to live with
their husbands. It’s a patriarchal construct. The man does not leave home, but instead, the woman
leaves home to start a new life with the husband. Because of this, their families do not see
women as worthy investments. The logic for families is ‘why to invest if she leaves home.’ If the
girl is prepared, they argue it’s not her family that profits, but where she gets married. They
prefer to spend more in the boy as they argue the boy would stay home and care for the family.
54
This establishes a framework on which women cannot participate effectively in politics. Where
they are not learned, they are unaware of their rights and civic duties. They depend on men in all
spheres of their lives to make decisions for them. For instance, in Bangladesh, girls don’t get the
same educational opportunities as their male counterparts. Their parents assume the boy’s
primary education (Bullough et al.,2012).
Another cultural norms that hinder women’s political participation are marriage norms.
These norms restrict women to the private domain. According to these standards, women are
believed to have inborn home management skills. According to these norms, marriage
institutions offer women a chance to realize this capacity: child-bearing and nursing, cooking,
and household management. Enemuo goes on to state that Nigeria’s leadership barred women
from these activities. Men considered as superior to women should not be challenged, and their
words are the law. This prevents successful involvement as women feel they cannot contest what
a man does. Therefore, holding their representatives accountable is very difficult for women.
Most of their leaders are men, and they’d be called an act of disrespect, talking back, or
challenging their leaders’ activities. Even though disgruntled, they won’t publicly blame the
leaders for their behavior. Political engagement is not only voting as referred to, but being able to
feel secure enough to keep politicians accountable if they do not do their jobs as required
(Norris, & Inglehart, 2001).
In Africa, many cultures involve marrying and starting a family when a girl is ‘age.’ A
woman who doesn’t want to get married or otherwise is also accused of being immoral. Thus,
people are socialized not to pay any attention to single women. This was echoed in 2014 when a
Kenyan governor indicated that single women could not hold leadership roles. This assertion was
met with much outrage from parliamentary women and women’s organizations, and the governor
55
was forced to recant his statement. This kind of thinking holds back women not only when it
comes to introducing themselves as candidates but also because they belong to the same school
of thought (Moghadam, & Senftova, 2005).
Religion
Two religions rule Africa: Islam and Christianity. These two religions have very similar
constructs and tell each other’s relationships and their day-to-day activities. Both religions were
blamed for advancing patriarchies. However, there have been arguments that it’s not so many
theological excerpts as their interpretations. In Islam, in essence, men and women are equal.
Dignity or reward and responsibility for personal actions and property rights, morality, and faith.
According to Oman, men are women’s protectors and maintenance because Allah has provided
one more (strength) than the other, and they support them by their means. However, some
passages perpetuate women’s subordination. For example, in the Bible, Eve was created to
support Adam. This subordinates the woman, and whoever subscribes to the letter will always
see the woman as below the man. Kenya is a secular state that is governed by the constitution,
not the Bible or Quran. Despite the constitution saying so, Kenyans freely prayed for their
representatives and the country at large. With a vast majority being Christians and Christian
values educated, they believe the man is the head, and the woman is inferior. This may be a
reason women aren’t publicly criticizing their representatives (Akoleowo, 2021).
Religion has set men and women different expectations. In Islam, women are encouraged
to be virgins before marriage failure may even lead to death. Christians also focus on preserving
virginity before the marriage. Boko Haram, a militant group in Nigeria, sought to turn Northern
Nigeria state into a Muslim state that follows Sharia law. This stirred the ‘bring back our
children’ movement worldwide. Education of these girls was delayed for over a year, and when
56
eventually rescued, more than half of the abducted girls were pregnant. This creates another girl’s
issues. They will have to give birth and care for their children and forgo going to school. This
means other people would make choices for them, this lack of political involvement. Illiteracy
left women vulnerable to harsh Quran interpretations by people with more motives (Ghazal
Read, 2004).
Media
The media is concerned with maintaining or abolishing patriarchal norms. In reinforcing
patriarchal expectations, the media uses different standards to analyze women compared to their
counterparts. For example, the first lady and the president will attend an event, the president’s
attention would be the speech he gives on whatever latest phenomena. In contrast, the first lady
will focus on what she was wearing first and whether her goal will come second to her attire.
This was observed with U.S. President and his wife, Michelle Obama. Michelle focuses more on
her fashion than her qualification as the first lady ad she has to sell. The same with the Kenyan
president, His Excellency Uhuru Kenyatta. The public reflects on Uhuru’s policies and looks at
the First Lady as the president’s lighter side. She is often a gimmick in public relations when she
leads the beyond zero initiative to increase maternal and infant mortality. Women can be
discouraged from engaging in politics as their plan comes second if the new media is anything to
go by.
Sphere of the Socio-Economic
Women’s subordination started with the privatization of land, according to Fredrick
Engels. In contrast to men, women are more vulnerable to poverty. The feminization of poverty
has resulted as a result of this. In Kenya, political aspirants often take advantage of this during
electioneering season to entice voters with cash and food. The representatives are re-elected, and
57
little is done to change the situation for women. Since these women lack authority, they are
unaware that they have the right to challenge their representatives. The cycle then repeats itself
during the next political season, when election campaigns are extremely costly. Few people have
the financial resources to run for office, let alone buy votes. This means that, even though the
female candidates receive funding to cover their nomination fees, they still risk losing because
they are not as well-known as their male counterparts. This feminization of poverty has a strong
impact on women’s engagement on two fronts: presenting themselves and presenting their
children (Probert, 2005).
Women have been socialized to prioritize the needs of their families above all else. This
extends to women who wish to pursue politics as well. Women do not compete until their
children have reached adulthood. Some men claim that making their women involved in politics
is emasculating because it may represent who is the household head. This helps to understand
why so many women in politics are widowed or have never married. Martha Karua, also known
as the Iron Lady, ran for president in Kenya in 2013. Wangari Maathai, a Nobel Laureate in
2004, ran for president in 1997 alongside Charity Ngilu and was best known for her green belt
campaign (Nzomo, 1997).
Kenya’s history of abuse against women is well-documented. Women’s violence is not
dealt with as seriously as it should be. Women are denied the right to work and make a living.
The Education Centre for Women in Democracy treated 153 incidents of electoral abuse against
female candidates in the run-up to the 2007 elections. Before the 2007 election, the Centre
received 258 complaints of women’s abuse and torture via email and phone and another 258
complaints in the year following the election. Kenyan men went on a stripping binge in late
2014. They stripped women that they thought were dressed indecently in public. This sparked the
58
“my dress, my preference” movement, which sought to deconstruct patriarchal systems in which
men decide what is suitable for women, in this case, what to wear (Ohman, & Lintari, 2015).
Results
We decided to establish connections between patriarchy and women’s participation by
giving gender experts, human rights experts, governance specialists, and other actors in the field
questionnaires.
The outcome is as follows.
Does Kenya rely heavily on patriarchal values?
Frequency
percent
Valid
percent
Valid
Cumulative
%
19
86.4
86.4
86.4
3
13.6
13.6
100.0
22
100.0
100.0
yes
no
total
86.4% of respondents agree that Kenya is currently strongly dominated by patriarchal
ideals. In certain communities in the north-east of the country, the man has all the main
documents such as women’s identity cards. Having these records, women have no say. A large
percentage of them believe that patriarchy is still heavily integrated with Kenyans is very
troubling. Patriarchal norms worked mainly to bring women down and to give men the upper
hand. This also indicates that there is still a long way to go for positive action currently in
59
progress—the parliamentary act set up the National Committee on Gender and Equality in 2011.
People also feel secure with what is known, and something that could challenge that is viewed
with intense suspicion. It is important to note that this reflects the difficulty of changing one’s
culture.
Conclusion
From the description and the evidence, the hypothesis in chapter one holds. Patriarchal
value structures negatively affect the successful involvement of women in governance and
politics in Kenya. The patriarchal ideals only serve the benefit of men to the detriment of
women. It is only through emancipation in the form of education that women will rise to the
occasion and have their rightful place at the governance table. For men to be more open to the
concept of women having equal rights and obligations, activism on the topic would have to
increase.
60
CHAPTER 4
RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
Kenya also has a long way to go in terms of women’s government participation after
discussions at previous chapters. While progress since independence has been steady, progress
has been especially slow. Our neighboring countries, including Rwanda and Uganda, are
61
kilometers ahead of women’s political involvement. For example, the implementation of the
quota system is one of the reasons given.
A review of the role women play in Africa’s political environment shows the willingness
of women to take part in political activities countered by the chauvinist party, which wants to
maintain the status quo. It was also seen that women play an important role in government and
that their successes are important given the chance and the right environment. Patriarchy is also
deeply ingrained in social traditions in cultures. In the study, it was obvious that, whatever their
background, both men and women still assumed the individual roles that men and women should
play in their mentality. In the case of Kenya, the patriarchy remains fundamentally deep-rooted.
The country has customary and civil laws coexisting. Customary law is deeply affected and
prevails under patriarchal standards as long as it is used to guide Kenya’s patriarchy.
It should also be noted that all types of patriarchy are evil. Women cannot own land
because it is not in their position. We are fighting against this kind of patriarchy. Women should
not be blamed for this but should instead blame the standards under which women are expected
to live. Political parties play a crucial role in women’s participation in governance. Women are
still encouraged to take part in lowly positions. Political parties are structured such that it is only
men who have easier access to leadership roles. The nomination criteria, for example, do not
favor women. A lot has to take place for Kenya to be on the same level as its neighbors in
women’s political participation, the top of the list being political will.
Recommendations
Empowerment of women. Patriarchy is the number one issue affecting the participation
of women. As it is difficult to change people’s culture from the outside, it is easier to do so from
the inside. This means that the government must ensure that women are empowered. This can be
62
achieved by ensuring that all kids and particularly girls go to school and learn. For adults, the
government should concentrate on civic education to empower women to question their status
quo. However, this civic education should not be scheduled too close to the general elections
since civic educators will be vying with the politicians for voters’ attention. Because politicians
still have incentives for citizenship education, there will be no progress made. Only through
empowerment can women make independent decisions regarding their candidates of choice and
ultimately keep them accountable.
Change in strategy. The two-third gender rule does not suffice, and the government
must establish a system to enforce it. Kenya’s president, Uhuru Kenyatta, set a strong precedent
by appointing six women from 18 cabinet positions. It was an effort to comply with the gender
norm of two-thirds.
Party changes. Reforms inside political parties should ensure that they don’t only speak
about gender parity but also talk. They have manifestos that are aware of the problems women
face. However, they should go further and try to enforce these policies in the parties. The results
of the next general elections should be worth seeing should the party restructure its structures.
The media played a significant role. Some have previously suggested that the media
avoid depicting women as feminine. I think there’s nothing wrong with being soft. Instead, the
media should be impartial when they report men and women alike. The media should be
impartial so that the masses can concentrate rather than biologically on particular policies and
ideas and what they can do.
Women groups. Women can come and talk with one voice. This gives them more
negotiating leverage, and they can do more in this way. Women often know the challenges that
63
their fellow women face, and these organizations only help them through mentorships or
networks through which they can interact.
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Outline
The paper is a final year project on gender inequality and women’s participation in politics. It
looks that the challenges that women in politics face. Gender differences in roles and experiences
in the home, at work, and in the community have been identified as major contributors to the
observed “gender gap” in these societies. In terms of ideology, electoral preferences, and
political attitudes, the “gender gap” has traditionally been defined as a tendency for women to be
more conservative than men. On the other hand, recent research casts doubt on the notion, or at
least the long-term viability, of the so-called “traditional gender gap.”
The study used secondary data from available literature to reinforce the findings, not just
based on these respondents’ primary data. This study found that despite the constant discussions
on the underrepresentation of women in domestic politics and the global call to promote
increased women’s participation, their numbers in national politics remain markedly low. In
addition to relying on primary data from those respondents, the study also reinforced the findings
using secondary data from the available literature. The study found that despite constant
discussions about the underrepresentation of women in national politics and the global call to
support women’s increased participation, there are still significantly low numbers in national
politics.
here is the literature
Literature Review
Page 1 of 17
Table of Contents
Research Topic
Introduction to Literature Review
Literature Review Components
Types of Published Documentation: Academic and Commercial
Investigation of Theories, Models and Research Studies
Conclusions
Lessons Learned
Cited References
Page 2 of 17
GENDER INEQUALITY AND WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN POLITICS IN
AFRICA
Introduction
Overwhelming evidence has shown that politics remains mostly male-dominated.
A closer look at the political matrix of many countries would reveal that men control
political participation. This proof is not geographically or culturally distinct but spreads
across the world. In Africa, for example, because of a great deal of tradition, women are
continually regarded as minors and second-rate men. While critics may argue that
political participation is excluded and that politics is an equal area for all those involved
in membership regardless of gender and social status, the institutional basis for
participation does not imply that. This is particularly true in the holding of elected public
offices. However, although holding public office is regarded as an intrinsic feature of
political engagement, it is not the only way other types of political involvement influence
the domestic political environment (Sheridan, Pini, & Conway, 2006).
Participation of citizens in the political leaders’ mandate is crucial as the
government is intended to represent them. Political involvement is widely known as any
action performed by people to influence, impact or involve the political sphere. The
United Nations (UN) Inter-Agency Network on Women and Gender Equality (IANWGE)
defines policy participation as being more than just participation in the electoral process;
it subsumes freedom of expression, of assembly, of association, of participation in a
public affair, the possibility of registering as a candidate, of campaigning, of being
elected and taking office at any given location This broad description includes many
items that are taken for granted. Some people associate civic activity with the democratic
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process, thereby not capturing other similarly important events, such as marches and
voluntary activities, and local boards’ meetings.
Conway applies to citizens’ actions that aim to control government structure, the
selection of government, or government policies (Miller et al.,1981). This concept
emphasizes the government system and policies and the role of citizens in both. It
underlines the fundamental importance of citizens’ view of government remoteness or
absence. Rosen stone regards political activity as acts that spread social goods and ideals
in one way or another. Citizens choose their elected officials by referendum, and
representatives devise policies that ultimately decide tax levels and earn benefits from the
social program. People have other means of engaging in politics, and they may either
become representatives of or directly influence bureaucrats.
A type of political involvement is essential for bridging contact between
electorates and government officials to conduct public discussions. Such discussions may
either help holders of public offices in their stands and policy guidance or challenge
officials to change them. They are most successful in open democratic societies when
citizens express their opinions with a high degree of freedom of expression. More closed
political structures prohibit this nature’s activity and even use coercion to avoid
questioning government decisions and policies. The level of participation in politics
depends inevitably on certain factors such as demography and social organization.
However, comparative political behavior shows variations in the degree of growth,
culture, and exposure to liberal values like democracy. In terms of growth, the Western
European and North American countries show stable democratization and wider political
involvement.
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Objective
To determine the political involvement of African women.
Problem statement
Political engagement tends to increase the population’s representation in society
or country governance. Political participation is encouraged in the modern state because
it helps maintain social order and the status quo by allowing citizens to express their
concerns and choices to political elites, who respond appropriately. Most constitutions
worldwide guarantee women and men equal rights, including the right to engage in
politics and governance. In the last 100 years, the addition of women’s rights to universal
suffrage has opened doors for significant women’s involvement in political life. Most
countries now accept the importance of women in policymaking, and many have ratified
or signed international conventions protecting women’s rights and welfare. Although the
above is real, there is still a significant disparity in political involvement between men
and women in virtually every society on the planet. Masculinity and patriarchal ideals
continue to influence governance and politics, limiting women’s participation and
political effectiveness. This is particularly true in Africa, where patriarchal traditions are
deeply ingrained in the political system. The persistence of women’s marginality in
politics, both numerically and in their ability to effectively influence decision-making, is
the study’s research challenge.
Questions: The thesis aims to address the following questions in this regard.
1. What role do women play in shaping Africa’s political landscape?
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2. How do patriarchal values influence women’s ability to enter and effectively
participate in governance and politics?
3. What is the structure of political parties in Kenya, and what role do they play in
preventing or promoting women’s participation in governance and politics?
Introduction to Literature Review
The current literature on governance and political participation will be reviewed
in this section. It will focus on women’s role, specifically their involvement or absence in
global governance and political participation. Although the study’s main focus is on
Africa, specifically Kenya, it is important to note that understanding the current political
situation requires examining what is happening in other parts of the world in terms of
women’s position in governance and politics. It would also be unable to provide a
systematic review of the study if this was not considered. Although governance is not
entirely new, political participation in Africa, especially through democratic voting, is
relatively new to Africans, having been introduced through colonization in the last 5 to 6
decades. Coupled with the patriarchal structure that prevails in most African societies,
women’s participation in governance and politics is noticeably diminished, as evidenced
by their low representation in public office and key decision-making positions in policy
and governance. This discovery, however, is not special to Africa; it can be seen all over
the world.
This study’s literature will be divided into subsections. First, there’s the literature
on governance. There’s the literature on different types of political participation, then
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there’s the literature on factors that influence political participation, and finally, there’s
the literature on women and political participation.
Literature Review Components
Political Participation and Governance
Federalism and political engagement are closely connected, and they are at the
heart of every social-economic structure. Women’s participation in both processes is
woefully inadequate around the world. The home has become the place of work for many
women, especially housewives, which is their primary contribution. At the same time,
men hold the vast majority of governance and political leadership (Ballington, 2004).
Governance
Whenever a group of people is so large that it is difficult to make decisions,
members of the group build an organization to help. They delegate an important part of
decision-making in that institution. The body can be a board of directors or project
managers, depending on whether the body is a public or private corporation. In general,
governance thus implies strategic management of communities, key management
decisions, and obligations. It can also be argued that governance is generally a matter of
authority, who decides which policies are followed, and, to some degree, its
effectiveness. Governance is by no means as straightforward as the definition above
suggests. Often because of the number of actors involved, it is a difficult matter.
Although policymakers may be the directors of a private company, the board
communicates and clearly articulates the basis of their decisions to the stakeholders,
including owners and shareholders. At the local, national, international, and corporate
levels, governance may be possible (Barry, 1999).
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Many observers view governance differently, and the verdict remains as to what
it means and entails. In Murdoch, governance includes transitioning from state funding to
partnerships with NGOs to social-economic initiatives and projects. This view provides a
broader view of governance by emphasizing the dynamism of the mechanism. It is not
only a government operation, but it is accomplished by the private and voluntary sectors’
efforts. Governance determines the processes and mechanisms for implementing and
executing decisions. Lange sees governance as a process of institutionalized publicprivate relations that aims to reach defined mutual goals.
Good and democratic governance
In the last few decades, in foreign and domestic contexts, the notion of
good/democratic governance has become a priority. Good or democratic governance
refers to the degree of accountability of a country’s institutions and processes. Good
governance has become a crucial criterion in developing countries that these countries
must meet to receive development funds from the developed world. Consequently, the
role of civil society in domestic governance has become central in this context.
Good/democratic governance has the following features, according to the United Nations
Development Program.
i. Accountability – One of the municipal government’s obligations is to report, clarify,
and be accountable for its Community decision’s consequences.
ii. Transparency – people who serve governance, should readily observe and understand
decision-making, see why a decision has been made and what knowledge has been
founded upon it. What consultation and guidance were considered before the decision,
and the applicable statutory requirements that were complied with should also be evident.
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iii. The needs of the society concerned and any conflicting interests should be fulfilled in
a timely and sensitive manner.
iv. Since the rule of law decisions made should always be law-compliant, the bodies
responsible for governance cannot be above the law.
v. Efficient and effective local government decisions and execution should make the most
of the resources available, including budgets, human resources, and time to benefit the
whole community.
vi. Equitable and inclusive government should allow all community stakeholders to
engage in the process. More so for the most vulnerable, since positive governance
feelings arise when there is a mutual sense that the member’s needs have been taken into
account.
vii. Participatory—all those affected or interested in a specific decision should always be
provided with the opportunity to participate in the decision-making process. This can be
done by members who contribute their views, recommendations or are kept aware of
them by providing information. Other times their involvement can be involved in the
actual decision.
viii. Consensus the oriented decisions taken should always be based on the consensus of
the participants. It should be able to balance different interests to reach an agreement.
These features originate from good governance principles like legitimacy, speech,
direction, efficiency, transparency, and fairness (Bell, & O’Rourke, 2010).
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Types of Published Documentation – Academic and Commercial
Conventional Means
They include fairly regular political campaigns which use democratic government
platforms. They can fall into two different categories:
(a) Support-where participants ceremonially show loyalty to a government or nation
(b) Influence where participants are intended to change or reverse a specific position or
government policy.
Participants’ supportive actions may be aimed at a particular gain from the government.
Behaviors may be influenced by voting or a high level of initiative to achieve a party’s
benefits.
One of the main factors determining political involvement is differential access to
opportunities through demographics. In this context, the word resources refer to
education and income and the occupational situation, including membership of the
association. Higher levels of income, education, and employment are typically correlated
with active political involvement and vice versa.
The importance of education in determining political engagement has been
discovered. Numerous studies have consistently shown that higher education levels are
associated with more active political engagement, greater political literacy, higher voter
turnout, and democratic attitudes. Ignorance plays a large role in perpetuating corrupt
politicians in Africa’s developing countries, who prey on voters’ ignorance of the
consequences of voting for their opponents or women. Due to ingrained practices that
relegate women to domestic work, women, in particular, find it difficult to engage in the
content; these notions are more prevale…